2008 November Space Hall

The Evolution of Glassmaking

Evolution of Glassmaking

R.W. Douglas, in his book A History of Glassmaking, tells us that the word glass was derived from the Roman term glesum and that the Romans had a large glass factory located in Germany. They often used glass panes to cover the windows of public baths to keep drafts out while still allowing light to come in. The Romans also used glass vessels to for liquids on the dinner table. In fact, glassware use for this purpose dates back to somewhere between 1500 and 800 B.C. in Egypt and Phoenicia. Those first glass pieces were made of primitive soda lime glass.

Until quite recently in historical terms, most glassware was produced by skilled artisans and each piece was crafted by hand. We see many medieval etchings of glass blowers working alongside their fiery furnaces to craft bottles and bowls for the nobility. Some pieces were formed by pouring the molten glass into a pre-formed mold until it cools and hardens in its new shape. Cast pieces often required post processing to remove surface imperfections and bring the piece to its final smooth surface and clarity.

The process of making and forming glass has evolved greatly since those early days. Today, identical pieces of glass table ware are made by the tens of thousands or even millions in high tech factories. These pieces are removed from molding machines in their finished form with no more than a good cleaning required before use on the dinner table.

Because of its impermeable nature, glass is often used to store liquids such as milk or wine to keep air from getting in and causing the liquid to spoil. The structural strength of glass makes it ideal for carbonated liquids which may be under pressure within the container. The beauty of glass and the variety of colors and finishes that can be applied have made it a favorite of artists for thousands of years.

Among archaeological digs, glass implements and pieces of art often survive through the ages and reveal something about the ancient cultures that created them. It is the beauty and everlasting nature of glass that makes it perfect for the modern keepsake as well. Etched champagne flutes are often used as gifts from the bride and groom for the wedding party to thank them for their participation and to provide a lasting memory of the event.

Modern companies such as Glass with a Twist, use the latest technologies to etch words or images into many different types of glassware for their customers. Laser etching provides sharply detailed etchings with fine edges. Because the lasers are guided by computer, the patterns are perfectly repeatable and identical etchings can be made for bulk orders for larger events. Despite the modern techniques used in place of the ancient artisans, modern etched glassware can be beautifully made. With the new techniques, even customized glassware can be made inexpensively enough to allow everyday use although because of their special significance, many choose to keep them as display pieces.

Comments (0)

The Historical Progression of the Net, from One User’s Perspective

I have always been interested in all things related to science and technology. A Texas Instruments TI99 -4a "computer" was my first experience with computers. It was really more of a video game than a computer, but it had a keyboard, and one of the "game cartridges" was a Basic language compiler. I spent countless hours devising a program that simulated a conversation between the user and the computer. My goal was to make it seem as though the computer could carry on a conversation and be indistinguishable from a real person. That was about the extent of the machine’s capability. There was no modem and indeed no semblance of a public internet at the time. This was in the early 1980’s.

At some point in the late 1980’s, around 1988, I purchased an AT based computer and with it a 300 baud modem. This was low end stuff at the time, I think 1200 baud modems were available by then, but I didn’t have a lot of money and settled for what I could afford. With the 300 baud modem, I could connect to local Bulletin Board Systems (BBS). The BBS hosted various public message boards, most of which were themed or topic oriented. Postings were made on the nearest local BBS and then each BBS passed the messages around until it spread back to a BBS where the intended recipient of the message could read it and reply. It could take several days to send a message and get a reply, depending upon the routing. A local BBS near me also hosted a multi-player online game. It was largely text-based, but had some ASCII star-maps to help visualize the galaxy in which each player’s merchant fleets roamed.

Not long after that I found CompuServe. CompuServe had a network of servers that allowed users to dial in access the information, games, and communications (e-mail even) that the company provided. They charged by the minute. With a 300 baud modem, those minutes accumulated pretty quickly. I eventually upgraded to a computer with an 80286 processor and a 2400 baud modem.

My 80286 became a 386 and then a 486 and became more capable of handling graphics. Somewhere in the early 1990’s I got a Pentium machine. At this point, the Internet and the World Wide Web had officially come into existence, but since I was on America Online, much of my online activity took place within the limited scope of the AOL servers. Eventually, around 1997, AOL allowed access to the entire outside web as well and became a true Internet Service Provider (ISP).

In the late 1990’s and early 2000’s it was not at all unusual at my house to see the wall phone removed and placed on the floor with a cable running from the exposed phone jack to the computer when someone in the house was online. There were no wireless Local Area Networks (LAN). Dial up modems had improved, but they remained slow, and we marveled at the promised speeds of cable modems and waited for our cable provider to offer internet service.

Today, of course, the cable modem is nearly ubiquitous. We can access the internet with speeds capable of streaming music or even full television quality video in real-time. We can send instant messages not only to other computers, but to cell phones as well and get replies back within seconds. With webcams we have achieved the science fiction staple of video telephony. Instead of being limited to just one service provider like AOL, we can choose from dozens with the aid of websites like broadband.co.uk who all compete for our business with free offers and promotional pricing. We’ve come a long way.

Comments (0)

The History of Toys

Toys have been around about as long as children have been around. A board game that may have been the ancestor to checkers was played in 4000 B.C. in Babylonia. Around 1000 B.C., kites began appearing in China, attracting both children and adults. In the 17th century, doll houses became all the rage, but not for children, but for society ladies with lots of money. It wasn’t until the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that toys for children began to be mass-produced in Britain.

One of the most sought-after toys under the Christmas tree even today is the talking doll. This popular toy was invented in the 1820’s by Johann Maelzel but was improved and popularized by Thomas Edison when he integrated his new phonograph technology with dolls. Today, dolls can speak, sing, laugh, "eat", walk, and even go potty.

For boys, the toy at the top of Christmas wish lists for the past hundred years has been the toy train. In 1901, store owner Joshua Lionel Cowen built a battery-operated train engine to advertise product in his display window. Cowen was surprised when customers began asking to buy the train rather than the product it was advertising. This was the birth of Lionel Trains.

The most famous toy of all time is arguably the teddy bear. This favorite stuffed animal got its start with a political cartoon. President Theodore ("Teddy") Roosevelt had travelled to Mississippi to help settle a border dispute with neighboring Louisiana. His hosts decided to take him bear hunting, but after a day of no success, someone finally captured a bear and offered it to Roosevelt to shoot. Roosevelt declined, refusing to shoot a helpless animal. Cartoonist Clifford Berryman captured the incident in a now-famous cartoon showing Roosevelt and a little bear cub on a leash. In New York, Morris and Rose Michtom designed an upright stuffed bear resembling the Berryman cartoon and placed it in the window of their confectionary store. They called it "Teddy’s Bear". The bear was an immediate hit and the Michtoms founded the first teddy bear manufacturing company in the United States.

The 1940’s and 50’s saw the rise of mega toy companies like Milton Bradley, Parker Brothers and Hasbro. The marketing reach of these companies was unprecedented and the sale of children’s toys went into overdrive. Toys created during that period that are still popular today include Mr. Potato Head, Candy Land, and Silly Putty.

One of the best-selling toys of all time is the Barbie doll, brought to market in 1959 by Elliot and Ruth Handler, the founders of Mattel Toys. The Handlers realized that most dolls at that point in time were representations of babies and children and that there might be a market for adult dolls with occupations and hobbies (and, of course, a very cool travel trailer). Barbie dolls were wildly successful, aided by a strong television advertising campaign. Today, Mattel estimates that over a billion Barbies have been sold worldwide and that a Barbie sells every three seconds.

Toys will continue to be popular as long as there are children and adults with a sense of fun and play. Toys themselves may change, but the themes of imagination and exploration are timeless.

Comments (0)

Small Business Spotlight: Buyrolls

The Internet is filled with American success stories. It has enabled a new wave of entrepreneurs to strike out on their own. An example of one of these bold new business leaders is Jim Jones, owner of Buyrolls.com. Jim started a company that specializes in supplying thermal paper rolls, bond paper rolls, and printer ribbons over the internet.

Buyrolls.com has been in business for less than year, but has already attracted many loyal customers. Among them are many other small business owners. Jim says that even though he has several larger accounts, small businesses are responsible for the lion’s share of his business. Businesses big and small use thermal paper rolls supplied by Buyrolls.com for POS applications ranging from cash registers and credit card machines to gas pump and ATM receipts. Buyrolls.com also offers many specialty papers such as the plotter paper used by engineering firms.

Jim, himself, with many years of experience in the thermal paper business before deciding to start his own company, is intimately aware with the importance of paying attention to every customer’s needs. He is closely involved in monitoring every order that comes to Buyrolls.com. In fact, he says, since his products are used to print receipts for many different businesses, see how much receipt paper is ordered gives him a unique real-time gauge of the economy. Right now, he says, he can see that the restaurant business is in a significant slowdown. Jim’s conclusions based on the close eye he keeps on his customer’s orders is borne out by firms specializing in economic forecast. Fitch Ratings reported on November 18th that the restaurant business, and especially those offering mid to high level dining, were indeed suffering due to rising unemployment, and drops in both stock market and home values. Fitch went on to restaurant business forecast sales declines for the balance of 2009. Jim really does have a good feel for each one of his customers.

Perhaps, because he pays such close attention to detail, Jim’s company is doing well. Buyrolls.com continues to focus on adding new customers and providing superior service to those customers they already have. For new business, Buyrolls.com relies on word of mouth recommendations from his current customers, and the results of a professional internet marketing campaign designed to increase the visibility of his business on the web. Buyrolls.com also routinely offers special pricing on select items. As a small business owner himself, he knows how important it is for other small business to keep costs under control. Buyrolls.com, with its low overhead costs is well positioned to help them with that goal.

Offering value pricing on needed business paper supplies while still providing personal service, is another example of the way small business owners can reach out to help each other during rough economic times. Other small business owners appreciate that effort and have been loyal and supportive customers of Buyrolls.com since its inception.

Comments (0)

Chronology of Alcohol Consumption

Perhaps nothing in man’s rich history has more profoundly affected his well-being than liquor-for good as well as for evil. As a pleasant release from the anxieties of the day, or as a voracious, consuming addiction, liquor is-and most certainly will be-a constant in the lives of men.

It is sufficient for us to recognize and to accept the enormous impact of beverage alcohol upon our society. Nearly two million of our fellow citizens are employed in making, transporting and selling spirits. Retail sales exceed 32 billions of dollars annually. Federal and local taxes generate over nine and a half billions each year. It is a usurious fact that taxes amount to about three times the manufactured cost of the product!

Yet, America’s overall alcoholic consumption has leveled off in recent years; In all forms, we consume each year about 2.7 gallons for every person over 14 years of age. That may seem a lot, but compare it to Portugal’s 6.2 gallons; France’s 5.9 gallons; or Germany’s 3.9 gallons per person. Admittedly, these others are wine imbibing nations! In our pioneer years, we Americans consumed over 7 gallons per person, so we have moderated considerably.

In terms of abuse, there is a considerable body of professional opinion that cultural ignorance may be a causal factor. A director of the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism has stated that society, rather than individuals may be the greatest cause of alcoholism. He wrote of findings that societies which have alcohol commonly in the diet-those that sip their alcohols slowly and generally with food in relaxed, comfortable surroundings-have a lower incidence of alcoholism.

The urbane commentator Gilbert Chesterton once said that the two things people did not wish to discuss were religion and politics and that these were the only two things worth talking about! Mr. Chesterton should have added alcohol to his list! There is some evidence that we are emerging from
the dark ages in the treatment of alcohol consumption. The point of view, of this book is that beverage alcohol as a chemical substance is neither good nor evil. Its uses and abuses, however, are profound commentaries on contemporary society.

Temperance and moderation are the companions of knowledge.

We will become more moderate in our use of alcohol as we increase our understanding of the workings of the chemical in our system.

Ancient Times to 500 AD

Paleozoic Era

Paleolithic Era

9750 B.C.

5500 B.C.

2800 B.C.

1200 to 800 B.C.

600 B.C. to 247 A.D.

Honey and grape wines ferment naturally as seas recede and bearing plants develop.

During the Stone Age, nomads settle in permanent shelters. domesticate animals, and cultivate grains and fruits. Beer and wine are common to all ancient diets.

The cultivation of seeds, peas, beans and cucumbers is common. Pottery and weaving crafts appear, as does the consumption of alcohol during communal and religieus rites.

Farming in the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys near modern Iran is now common. This is the birthplace of the wine grapes of Western civilization.

The Great Flood: Noah lands the ark at Mount Ararat and makes wines.

The Phoenecians of Northern Africa became traders of the Mediterranean, and so further enrich culture and grape development.

The Roman culture dominates Western civilization. Grapes arrive at Marseille in 600, and from 300 B.C. to 50 A. D. in the French areas of Burgundy, Bordeaux, the loire Valley, and in Britain and the Rhine and Moselle river valleys of Germany.

410

475

Jesus is born.

Drinking feasts are common everywhere in Rome where three times as much wine is consumed as in Greece.

The Visigoths sack Rome.

The culturation and development of wine is now controlled by the monasteries of the church.

Medieval Times 500 to 1500 AD

550

563

711 to 1492

800

St. Patrick brings Christianity to Ireland and probably the distilling techniques he learned in Alexandria.

St. Columba settles in Ionia Island off the coast of Scotland, forms an abbey, and is thought to have distilled the first Scotch whisky.

Arabian Moors dominate Spain protecting vineyards for fruit, but wine abounds despite the prohibitions.

Jaber Ibn Hayyan (Ceber). an Arabian alchemist, writes of “al Kohl” in Liber Investigationes Magisteri. The report covers the process of raising aqueous vapors: the freeing of liquor in the manner of a common eye cosmetic called “Kohl” which is made from antimony. Also, the Chinese distill spirits from rice wine.

822

1000

1066

1150

1172

1250

1290

Monks at Weser, Germany, use hops to preserve and flavor brews.

The Vikings discover America and name it “Vinland” because of the profusion of wild grape vines there. Beer and mead is celebrated in the Anglo-Saxon epic “Beowulf.”

William, Duke of Norrnanv, conquers England at Battle of Hastings. French-English wine trade rapidly expands.

White spirits from sweet fruit is distilled commonly as “alcool Blanc.” Vodka, or neutral spirits, are first produced from grain in Russia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.

King Henry II invades Ireland and discovers a native spirit called “Uisge Baugh” which is made from native grains.

Apothecaries in Italy commonly produce spirits spiced and sweetened as the earliest of liqueurs.

Arnauld of Villeneuve, a professor of medicine at Montpellier in southern France, popularizes a medical panacea which he ca!!s “aqua vitae” (the water of life). For the next 400 years, aqua vitae, in numerous forms, comprises a part of medical phamacopea. “It prolongs life, clears away ill humours, revives the heart, and maintains youth.”

1411

1419

1451

1493

The first French distilleries are given licenses in Alsace and Armagnac.

The island of Madeira is settled by the Portugese and developed for agriculture including grape growing.

German grain spirits called “schnapsteufel” (the devil’s drink) are produced, the precurser of modem Schnapps.

On his second expedition, Columbus takes sugar cane from the Canary Islands and plants at St. Croix in the Virgin Islands which begins the prodigious rum trade.

Early Modern Times 1500 to 1700 AD

1503

1510

1525

1553

1561

1580

1585

1606

1630

1640

Scotland makes peace with England, opening the whiskey trade.

The recipe for Benedictine liqueur is developed, but remains in private hands until 1884.

Amaretto liqueur is developed in the town of Sarrona, Italy.

Eau de vie de Cidre, or applejack, is first produced in Normandy, France. It is named Clavados in 1558 in honor of the Spanish Galleon visiting the area.

Beer is first produced for sale in glass bottles in Germany.

Jerez wine is commonly distilled to fortify and preserve Sherry.

Dutch ships carry the first “burnt wine” or brandy from Cognac, France, to England and the lowlands.

The Virginia Company is formed, and early grape growing experiments begin.

Governor John Winthrop makes the first prohibition move in an attempt to outlaw all liquor in Boston.

Frances Sylvius, at the University of leyden, Holland, develops a neutral aqua vitae from beer and adds juniper berry as a medicinal diuretic. For western civilization, this well-meaning procedure opened the causeway through which flowed the flood of grain spirits, a ubiquitous source for distillation. Frances named his concoction “Ienevre” which was shortened to Gin by the English.

1652

1657

1680

1685

1690

1693

Spirits are made from corn and rye in the first commercial distillery in the United States, operated by William Kieft on Staten Island.

Rum is first commercially produced in Massachusetts from West Indian molasses.

Yeast is first viewed under a microscope by the Dutch scientist Van leeuwenhoek.

William Penn makes beer commercially in Philadelphia.

Dom Perignon creates champagne in Epernay, France.

Williarp and Mary enact heavy duties to discourage French wine trade, and light duties to encourage Portuguese wine trade.

Late Modern Times 1700 to 1980

1733

1745

1761

1769

1781

1789

1791

1808

1818

1833

1837 to 1897

1843

1850

1852

1856

1860

1862

1874

1876

1880

1909

1916

1920

1929

1933

1935

1972

1978

1980

Parliament passes the Molasses Act, raising tariffs on non-British molasses to the colonies.

Rum becomes a staple on British navy ships as it is used to prevent scurvy.

George Washington orders a copper still from England and sells spirits commercially the following year.

The art of wine cultivation is brought to California from Mexico by Franciscan priest, Padre Junipero Serra - California’s oldest industry is wine making.

The cork is first used as a common stopper, a procedure which allows wine bottle aging.

The Reverend Elijah Craig creates Bourbon from grain whiskey and limestone waters in Kentucky.

The United States government first generates revenue by taxing whiskey and stills.

The first formal Temperance Society in the United States is formed at the First Congregational Church in Saratoga, New York.

Peter Smirnoff opens a vodka distillery in Moscow.

The Supreme Court-rules that states can regulate their liquor trade.

The blending of malt Scotch whiskey with the light spirits from the continuous still creates a vast new trade for product.

Captain Sutter produces grape brandy for. California gold miners.

A new type of gin is developed in London without sweetener and aptly called London dry gin. Also, Dr. Johann Siegert begins exporting bitters from Angostura, Venezuela.

Madeira wines celebrate their golden age in the United States.

Under a commission of the wine industry, Louis Pasteur isolates yeast as the fermenting agent.

Irish distillers begin to blend whiskey with neutral spirits in the manner of the Scotch blenders.

The Bartender’s Guide officially labels mixed drinks as cocktails.

The Women’s Christian Temperance Union is founded. Also, Prime Minister Gladstone loses his Parliament seat when he attempts to restrict gin consumption.

Beer is first pasteurized for stability.

An estimated eight percent of all Italian workers are involved in the wine industry.

The Cognac areas become defined.

Four hundred different individual brands of Irish whiskey are sold in the United States.

On January 16, the 18th Amendment becomes the law of the land.

The Police Commission of New York City estimates that there are 32,000 speak-easies and twice as many taverns as in pre-prohibition times. They estimate up to a total of 200,000 in the United States.

On December 5, at 5:32 p.m. the 21st Amendment is passed, ending 13 years 10 months, and 18 days of legal prohibition.

The first beer cans are sold in the United States, and over 700 brewers are involved in the business.

American distillers are permitted to produce light whiskeys reminiscent of the Canadian types.

Over four million cases of Tequila are sold, compared to a total of thirty thousand in 1960.

‘Sales of Vodka by case/is predicted to exceed forty million.

Comments (0)

Essential Factors that Allowed the Travel Industry to Flourish

Not so long ago, traveling across the world, or even across the country, was something most people only ever dreamed of. People rarely ever traveled outside of their own towns, and wonders of the world like the Egyptian pyramids were sights that were only ever seen in books. Today, the tourism and travel industry is worth hundreds of billions of dollars, and people think nothing of traveling to another country or continent when they want to get away from the everyday for a little while. There are many factors that allowed the travel industry to become as massive as it is today, and a few of the major ones are outlined below.

Improved Transportation Systems

Obviously, if everyone still traveled by horse and buggy, the travel industry would be non-existent. While automobiles, trains, and boats did make it possible for people to travel longer distances faster, they were still impractical means of transportation for global travel. The first commercial airlines were established in the 1920s, and it was largely this development that led to the massive increase in international travel. Suddenly, destinations that would have taken days to get to by car or train could be reached in a matter of hours. Traveling became more practical and convenient, and therefore more popular.

More Disposable Income

As a rule, those who lived during the Great Depression and the two World Wars simply didn’t have thousands of dollars to spend on exotic getaways. When women entered the workforce en masse, most two-income families found that they had more money to spend as they wished. Many chose to use some of this money to pay for trips that would have been unattainable for their parents and grandparents.

More Affordable Options

When only a few airlines and travel agencies existed, they could charge practically anything they wanted. When more companies began opening their doors, however, businesses were forced to begin offering lower prices in order to compete. Today, seat sales, all-inclusive vacation packages, and special promotions have made traveling more financially obtainable than it was in the past for a larger number of people.

The Internet

At one time, people had to rely on the travel agencies in their hometowns to find out about possible destinations, hotels, and attractions. The Internet has effectively put the power into the hands of the consumer. People can research various airlines, locations, attractions, hotels, and restaurants, compare prices, and even make reservations and bookings from the comfort of their homes. The fact that such a wealth of information can be accessed quickly and conveniently is another important reason why the travel industry has become so huge.

Comments (0)